The Second Extended Filesystem
  ==============================
  
  ext2 was originally released in January 1993.  Written by R\'emy Card,
  Theodore Ts'o and Stephen Tweedie, it was a major rewrite of the
  Extended Filesystem.  It is currently still (April 2001) the predominant
  filesystem in use by Linux.  There are also implementations available
  for NetBSD, FreeBSD, the GNU HURD, Windows 95/98/NT, OS/2 and RISC OS.
  
  Options
  =======
  
  Most defaults are determined by the filesystem superblock, and can be
  set using tune2fs(8). Kernel-determined defaults are indicated by (*).
  
  bsddf			(*)	Makes `df' act like BSD.
  minixdf				Makes `df' act like Minix.

  check=none, nocheck	(*)	Don't do extra checking of bitmaps on mount
  				(check=normal and check=strict options removed)
  
  debug				Extra debugging information is sent to the
  				kernel syslog.  Useful for developers.
  
  errors=continue			Keep going on a filesystem error.
  errors=remount-ro		Remount the filesystem read-only on an error.
  errors=panic			Panic and halt the machine if an error occurs.
  
  grpid, bsdgroups		Give objects the same group ID as their parent.
  nogrpid, sysvgroups		New objects have the group ID of their creator.
  
  nouid32				Use 16-bit UIDs and GIDs.
  
  oldalloc			Enable the old block allocator. Orlov should
  				have better performance, we'd like to get some
  				feedback if it's the contrary for you.
  orlov			(*)	Use the Orlov block allocator.
  				(See http://lwn.net/Articles/14633/ and
  				http://lwn.net/Articles/14446/.)
  
  resuid=n			The user ID which may use the reserved blocks.
  resgid=n			The group ID which may use the reserved blocks.
  
  sb=n				Use alternate superblock at this location.
  
  user_xattr			Enable "user." POSIX Extended Attributes
  				(requires CONFIG_EXT2_FS_XATTR).
  				See also http://acl.bestbits.at
  nouser_xattr			Don't support "user." extended attributes.
  
  acl				Enable POSIX Access Control Lists support
  				(requires CONFIG_EXT2_FS_POSIX_ACL).
  				See also http://acl.bestbits.at
  noacl				Don't support POSIX ACLs.
  
  nobh				Do not attach buffer_heads to file pagecache.

  xip				Use execute in place (no caching) if possible

  grpquota,noquota,quota,usrquota	Quota options are silently ignored by ext2.
  
  
  Specification
  =============
  
  ext2 shares many properties with traditional Unix filesystems.  It has
  the concepts of blocks, inodes and directories.  It has space in the
  specification for Access Control Lists (ACLs), fragments, undeletion and
  compression though these are not yet implemented (some are available as
  separate patches).  There is also a versioning mechanism to allow new
  features (such as journalling) to be added in a maximally compatible
  manner.
  
  Blocks
  ------
  
  The space in the device or file is split up into blocks.  These are
  a fixed size, of 1024, 2048 or 4096 bytes (8192 bytes on Alpha systems),
  which is decided when the filesystem is created.  Smaller blocks mean
  less wasted space per file, but require slightly more accounting overhead,
  and also impose other limits on the size of files and the filesystem.
  
  Block Groups
  ------------
  
  Blocks are clustered into block groups in order to reduce fragmentation
  and minimise the amount of head seeking when reading a large amount
  of consecutive data.  Information about each block group is kept in a
  descriptor table stored in the block(s) immediately after the superblock.
  Two blocks near the start of each group are reserved for the block usage
  bitmap and the inode usage bitmap which show which blocks and inodes
  are in use.  Since each bitmap is limited to a single block, this means
  that the maximum size of a block group is 8 times the size of a block.
  
  The block(s) following the bitmaps in each block group are designated
  as the inode table for that block group and the remainder are the data
  blocks.  The block allocation algorithm attempts to allocate data blocks
  in the same block group as the inode which contains them.
  
  The Superblock
  --------------
  
  The superblock contains all the information about the configuration of
  the filing system.  The primary copy of the superblock is stored at an
  offset of 1024 bytes from the start of the device, and it is essential
  to mounting the filesystem.  Since it is so important, backup copies of
  the superblock are stored in block groups throughout the filesystem.
  The first version of ext2 (revision 0) stores a copy at the start of
  every block group, along with backups of the group descriptor block(s).
  Because this can consume a considerable amount of space for large
  filesystems, later revisions can optionally reduce the number of backup
  copies by only putting backups in specific groups (this is the sparse
  superblock feature).  The groups chosen are 0, 1 and powers of 3, 5 and 7.
  
  The information in the superblock contains fields such as the total
  number of inodes and blocks in the filesystem and how many are free,
  how many inodes and blocks are in each block group, when the filesystem
  was mounted (and if it was cleanly unmounted), when it was modified,
  what version of the filesystem it is (see the Revisions section below)
  and which OS created it.
  
  If the filesystem is revision 1 or higher, then there are extra fields,
  such as a volume name, a unique identification number, the inode size,
  and space for optional filesystem features to store configuration info.
  
  All fields in the superblock (as in all other ext2 structures) are stored
  on the disc in little endian format, so a filesystem is portable between
  machines without having to know what machine it was created on.
  
  Inodes
  ------
  
  The inode (index node) is a fundamental concept in the ext2 filesystem.
  Each object in the filesystem is represented by an inode.  The inode
  structure contains pointers to the filesystem blocks which contain the
  data held in the object and all of the metadata about an object except
  its name.  The metadata about an object includes the permissions, owner,
  group, flags, size, number of blocks used, access time, change time,
  modification time, deletion time, number of links, fragments, version
  (for NFS) and extended attributes (EAs) and/or Access Control Lists (ACLs).
  
  There are some reserved fields which are currently unused in the inode
  structure and several which are overloaded.  One field is reserved for the
  directory ACL if the inode is a directory and alternately for the top 32
  bits of the file size if the inode is a regular file (allowing file sizes
  larger than 2GB).  The translator field is unused under Linux, but is used
  by the HURD to reference the inode of a program which will be used to
  interpret this object.  Most of the remaining reserved fields have been
  used up for both Linux and the HURD for larger owner and group fields,
  The HURD also has a larger mode field so it uses another of the remaining
  fields to store the extra more bits.
  
  There are pointers to the first 12 blocks which contain the file's data
  in the inode.  There is a pointer to an indirect block (which contains
  pointers to the next set of blocks), a pointer to a doubly-indirect
  block (which contains pointers to indirect blocks) and a pointer to a
  trebly-indirect block (which contains pointers to doubly-indirect blocks).
  
  The flags field contains some ext2-specific flags which aren't catered
  for by the standard chmod flags.  These flags can be listed with lsattr
  and changed with the chattr command, and allow specific filesystem
  behaviour on a per-file basis.  There are flags for secure deletion,
  undeletable, compression, synchronous updates, immutability, append-only,
  dumpable, no-atime, indexed directories, and data-journaling.  Not all
  of these are supported yet.
  
  Directories
  -----------
  
  A directory is a filesystem object and has an inode just like a file.
  It is a specially formatted file containing records which associate
  each name with an inode number.  Later revisions of the filesystem also
  encode the type of the object (file, directory, symlink, device, fifo,
  socket) to avoid the need to check the inode itself for this information
  (support for taking advantage of this feature does not yet exist in
  Glibc 2.2).
  
  The inode allocation code tries to assign inodes which are in the same
  block group as the directory in which they are first created.
  
  The current implementation of ext2 uses a singly-linked list to store
  the filenames in the directory; a pending enhancement uses hashing of the
  filenames to allow lookup without the need to scan the entire directory.
  
  The current implementation never removes empty directory blocks once they
  have been allocated to hold more files.
  
  Special files
  -------------
  
  Symbolic links are also filesystem objects with inodes.  They deserve
  special mention because the data for them is stored within the inode
  itself if the symlink is less than 60 bytes long.  It uses the fields
  which would normally be used to store the pointers to data blocks.
  This is a worthwhile optimisation as it we avoid allocating a full
  block for the symlink, and most symlinks are less than 60 characters long.
  
  Character and block special devices never have data blocks assigned to
  them.  Instead, their device number is stored in the inode, again reusing
  the fields which would be used to point to the data blocks.
  
  Reserved Space
  --------------
  
  In ext2, there is a mechanism for reserving a certain number of blocks
  for a particular user (normally the super-user).  This is intended to

  allow for the system to continue functioning even if non-privileged users

  fill up all the space available to them (this is independent of filesystem
  quotas).  It also keeps the filesystem from filling up entirely which
  helps combat fragmentation.
  
  Filesystem check
  ----------------
  
  At boot time, most systems run a consistency check (e2fsck) on their
  filesystems.  The superblock of the ext2 filesystem contains several
  fields which indicate whether fsck should actually run (since checking
  the filesystem at boot can take a long time if it is large).  fsck will
  run if the filesystem was not cleanly unmounted, if the maximum mount
  count has been exceeded or if the maximum time between checks has been
  exceeded.
  
  Feature Compatibility
  ---------------------
  
  The compatibility feature mechanism used in ext2 is sophisticated.
  It safely allows features to be added to the filesystem, without
  unnecessarily sacrificing compatibility with older versions of the
  filesystem code.  The feature compatibility mechanism is not supported by
  the original revision 0 (EXT2_GOOD_OLD_REV) of ext2, but was introduced in
  revision 1.  There are three 32-bit fields, one for compatible features
  (COMPAT), one for read-only compatible (RO_COMPAT) features and one for
  incompatible (INCOMPAT) features.
  
  These feature flags have specific meanings for the kernel as follows:
  
  A COMPAT flag indicates that a feature is present in the filesystem,
  but the on-disk format is 100% compatible with older on-disk formats, so
  a kernel which didn't know anything about this feature could read/write
  the filesystem without any chance of corrupting the filesystem (or even
  making it inconsistent).  This is essentially just a flag which says
  "this filesystem has a (hidden) feature" that the kernel or e2fsck may
  want to be aware of (more on e2fsck and feature flags later).  The ext3
  HAS_JOURNAL feature is a COMPAT flag because the ext3 journal is simply
  a regular file with data blocks in it so the kernel does not need to
  take any special notice of it if it doesn't understand ext3 journaling.
  
  An RO_COMPAT flag indicates that the on-disk format is 100% compatible
  with older on-disk formats for reading (i.e. the feature does not change
  the visible on-disk format).  However, an old kernel writing to such a
  filesystem would/could corrupt the filesystem, so this is prevented. The
  most common such feature, SPARSE_SUPER, is an RO_COMPAT feature because
  sparse groups allow file data blocks where superblock/group descriptor
  backups used to live, and ext2_free_blocks() refuses to free these blocks,
  which would leading to inconsistent bitmaps.  An old kernel would also
  get an error if it tried to free a series of blocks which crossed a group
  boundary, but this is a legitimate layout in a SPARSE_SUPER filesystem.
  
  An INCOMPAT flag indicates the on-disk format has changed in some
  way that makes it unreadable by older kernels, or would otherwise
  cause a problem if an old kernel tried to mount it.  FILETYPE is an
  INCOMPAT flag because older kernels would think a filename was longer
  than 256 characters, which would lead to corrupt directory listings.
  The COMPRESSION flag is an obvious INCOMPAT flag - if the kernel
  doesn't understand compression, you would just get garbage back from
  read() instead of it automatically decompressing your data.  The ext3
  RECOVER flag is needed to prevent a kernel which does not understand the
  ext3 journal from mounting the filesystem without replaying the journal.
  
  For e2fsck, it needs to be more strict with the handling of these
  flags than the kernel.  If it doesn't understand ANY of the COMPAT,
  RO_COMPAT, or INCOMPAT flags it will refuse to check the filesystem,
  because it has no way of verifying whether a given feature is valid
  or not.  Allowing e2fsck to succeed on a filesystem with an unknown
  feature is a false sense of security for the user.  Refusing to check
  a filesystem with unknown features is a good incentive for the user to
  update to the latest e2fsck.  This also means that anyone adding feature
  flags to ext2 also needs to update e2fsck to verify these features.
  
  Metadata
  --------
  
  It is frequently claimed that the ext2 implementation of writing
  asynchronous metadata is faster than the ffs synchronous metadata
  scheme but less reliable.  Both methods are equally resolvable by their
  respective fsck programs.
  
  If you're exceptionally paranoid, there are 3 ways of making metadata
  writes synchronous on ext2:
  
  per-file if you have the program source: use the O_SYNC flag to open()
  per-file if you don't have the source: use "chattr +S" on the file
  per-filesystem: add the "sync" option to mount (or in /etc/fstab)
  
  the first and last are not ext2 specific but do force the metadata to
  be written synchronously.  See also Journaling below.
  
  Limitations
  -----------
  
  There are various limits imposed by the on-disk layout of ext2.  Other
  limits are imposed by the current implementation of the kernel code.
  Many of the limits are determined at the time the filesystem is first
  created, and depend upon the block size chosen.  The ratio of inodes to
  data blocks is fixed at filesystem creation time, so the only way to
  increase the number of inodes is to increase the size of the filesystem.
  No tools currently exist which can change the ratio of inodes to blocks.
  
  Most of these limits could be overcome with slight changes in the on-disk
  format and using a compatibility flag to signal the format change (at
  the expense of some compatibility).
  
  Filesystem block size:     1kB        2kB        4kB        8kB
  
  File size limit:          16GB      256GB     2048GB     2048GB
  Filesystem size limit:  2047GB     8192GB    16384GB    32768GB
  
  There is a 2.4 kernel limit of 2048GB for a single block device, so no
  filesystem larger than that can be created at this time.  There is also
  an upper limit on the block size imposed by the page size of the kernel,
  so 8kB blocks are only allowed on Alpha systems (and other architectures
  which support larger pages).

  There is an upper limit of 32000 subdirectories in a single directory.

  
  There is a "soft" upper limit of about 10-15k files in a single directory
  with the current linear linked-list directory implementation.  This limit
  stems from performance problems when creating and deleting (and also
  finding) files in such large directories.  Using a hashed directory index
  (under development) allows 100k-1M+ files in a single directory without
  performance problems (although RAM size becomes an issue at this point).
  
  The (meaningless) absolute upper limit of files in a single directory
  (imposed by the file size, the realistic limit is obviously much less)
  is over 130 trillion files.  It would be higher except there are not
  enough 4-character names to make up unique directory entries, so they
  have to be 8 character filenames, even then we are fairly close to
  running out of unique filenames.
  
  Journaling
  ----------
  
  A journaling extension to the ext2 code has been developed by Stephen
  Tweedie.  It avoids the risks of metadata corruption and the need to
  wait for e2fsck to complete after a crash, without requiring a change
  to the on-disk ext2 layout.  In a nutshell, the journal is a regular
  file which stores whole metadata (and optionally data) blocks that have
  been modified, prior to writing them into the filesystem.  This means
  it is possible to add a journal to an existing ext2 filesystem without
  the need for data conversion.
  
  When changes to the filesystem (e.g. a file is renamed) they are stored in
  a transaction in the journal and can either be complete or incomplete at
  the time of a crash.  If a transaction is complete at the time of a crash
  (or in the normal case where the system does not crash), then any blocks
  in that transaction are guaranteed to represent a valid filesystem state,
  and are copied into the filesystem.  If a transaction is incomplete at
  the time of the crash, then there is no guarantee of consistency for
  the blocks in that transaction so they are discarded (which means any
  filesystem changes they represent are also lost).
  Check Documentation/filesystems/ext3.txt if you want to read more about
  ext3 and journaling.
  
  References
  ==========
  
  The kernel source	file:/usr/src/linux/fs/ext2/
  e2fsprogs (e2fsck)	http://e2fsprogs.sourceforge.net/
  Design & Implementation	http://e2fsprogs.sourceforge.net/ext2intro.html
  Journaling (ext3)	ftp://ftp.uk.linux.org/pub/linux/sct/fs/jfs/

  Filesystem Resizing	http://ext2resize.sourceforge.net/

  Compression (*)		http://e2compr.sourceforge.net/

  
  Implementations for:

  Windows 95/98/NT/2000	http://www.chrysocome.net/explore2fs
  Windows 95 (*)		http://www.yipton.net/content.html#FSDEXT2

  DOS client (*)		ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/system/filesystems/ext2/

  OS/2 (+)		ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/system/filesystems/ext2/

  RISC OS client		http://www.esw-heim.tu-clausthal.de/~marco/smorbrod/IscaFS/

  (*) no longer actively developed/supported (as of Apr 2001)
  (+) no longer actively developed/supported (as of Mar 2009)